The unification of Italy, or the Risorgimento, stands as one of the most significant political and social events of 19th-century Europe. It marks the transformation of fragmented Italian states into a single, unified kingdom under a constitutional monarchy. For civil service aspirants, understanding this historical milestone provides insights into nationalism, diplomacy, revolution and statecraft.

Historical Background

Before its unification, Italy was divided into multiple States:

1. Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont-Sardinia) – The driving force behind unification.

2. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies – Dominated Southern Italy.

3. Papal States – Governed by the Pope and centered in Rome.

4. Austrian Dominions – Controlled Lombardy and Venetia.

5. Smaller States like Tuscany, Modena, and Parma.

The Congress of Vienna (1815) restored these fragmented States and placed much of northern Italy under Austrian control. This disintegration fueled the nationalist desire for unification.

Key Factors Driving Unification

1. Rise of Nationalism: Influenced by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, the idea of a unified Italian identity gained momentum among intellectuals and common people.

2. Economic Aspirations: A united Italy would enable the creation of a larger domestic market and enhance industrial growth.

3. Foreign Influence: France under Napoleon III and the weakening Austrian Empire opened opportunities for Italian independence movements.

Phases of Unification

1. Role of Secret Societies

Carbonari: A secret nationalist organization that emerged in the early 19th century, which organized revolts to expel foreign powers.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy (1831): Mazzini was a visionary nationalist who believed in a democratic republic. His organization, Young Italy, mobilized youth across the peninsula.

Key Revolts: 1820s and 1830s uprisings by Carbonari. Revolts failed due to lack of coordination and strong Austrian repression.

2. The Role of Piedmont-Sardinia

Piedmont-Sardinia emerged as the leader of the unification process under the guidance of King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour.

Cavour’s Policies:

• Focused on economic modernization.

• Used diplomacy to garner international support.

• Strengthened the military.

Key Diplomatic Moves:

Alliance with France: In 1858, the Plombières Agreement with Napoleon III promised French support in exchange for Nice and Savoy.

Austro-Sardinian War (1859): Sardinia gained Lombardy after defeating Austria with French support.

3. Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi

Garibaldi, a charismatic military leader and a follower of Mazzini, played a pivotal role in the unification.

Expedition of the Thousand (1860): With his famous Red Shirts, Garibaldi landed in Sicily, defeated the Bourbon forces and marched north. He handed over the liberated territories to Victor Emmanuel II, prioritizing national unity over personal ambition.

4. Incorporation of Central and Southern Italy

In 1860, plebiscites were conducted in various regions and Central Italy along with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies which joined the Kingdom of Sardinia.

5. The Completion of Unification

Venetia (1866): Acquired after the Austro-Prussian War, in which Italy allied with Prussia.

Rome (1870): When French troops withdrew from Rome during the Franco-Prussian War, Italian forces occupied the city, making it the capital of unified Italy.

Challenges to Unification

1. Regional Divides: North was industrial and prosperous, while the South remained agrarian and underdeveloped.

2. Church Opposition: The Papacy resisted unification, leading to strained relations between the Church and the state.

3. Political Fragmentation: Different visions of governance, such as Mazzini’s democratic ideals versus Cavour’s monarchism, created friction.

Key Personalities in Unification

1. Giuseppe Mazzini: Ideological father of Italian unification.

2. Count Camillo di Cavour: The architect of unification, who balanced diplomacy and statecraft.

3. Giuseppe Garibaldi: The sword of Italian unification, known for his military expeditions.

4. Victor Emmanuel II: Symbol of the unified Italian monarchy.

Significance of Italian Unification

A. Birth of a Modern State: Italy emerged as a unified nation-state under a constitutional monarchy in 1871.

B. Inspiration for Other Movements: Italian unification inspired nationalist movements in Germany, Eastern Europe and India.

C. Impact on International Politics: The weakening of Austria shifted the balance of power in Europe.

D. Challenges of Nation-Building: Regional divides and economic disparities remained significant issues for the newly unified Italy.

Conclusion and Relevance for UPSC/MPSC Aspirants

The unification of Italy is a textbook example of how nationalism, diplomacy and revolutionary action can shape history. For aspirants, it offers lessons in political strategy, the role of leadership and the interplay of domestic and international forces. It also highlights the challenges of integrating diverse regions into a cohesive nation-state.

In the Indian context, the Italian unification can be compared to India’s integration under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel post-independence. Studying these parallels can enrich answers in General Studies papers and essays.