The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilisation, was one of the world’s oldest urban civilisations, flourishing around 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE. It was contemporaneous with the great civilisations of Mesopotamia and Egypt and was characterized by well-planned cities, advanced drainage systems and a sophisticated socio-economic structure. Understanding the Indus Valley Civilisation is crucial for UPSC aspirants, as it is a significant part of ancient Indian history. This article delves into its origin, urban planning, economy, society, religion, decline and legacy.
Origin and Discovery
The Indus Valley Civilisation was first discovered in 1921 when archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in present-day Pakistan. A year later, in 1922, R.D. Banerji discovered Mohenjo-Daro. Subsequent excavations have revealed over 1,500 sites across present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
The IVC is divided into three phases:
1. Early Harappan Phase (3300–2600 BCE) – Characterized by village settlements and the emergence of trade.
2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE) – Marked by urbanization, sophisticated city planning, and widespread trade.
3. Late Harappan Phase (1900–1300 BCE) – Decline of urban centers and deurbanization.
Geographical Extent
The Indus Valley Civilisation spanned an area of about 1.25 million sq. km, making it the largest Bronze Age civilisation. Its core regions included:
Harappa (Pakistan) – First discovered site, known for granaries and fortified structures.
Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan) – Famous for the Great Bath, advanced drainage, and a grid-like city layout.
Dholavira (Gujarat, India) – Known for water conservation and three-tiered city planning.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) – One of the largest Harappan sites, with evidence of early town planning.
Lothal (Gujarat, India) – An important port city with a dockyard, indicating maritime trade.
Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India) – Notable for fire altars and early ploughed fields.
Urban Planning and Architecture
The urban planning of the Indus Valley Civilisation was highly advanced and suggests a well-organized administration.
1. Town Planning:
Grid System: Cities were built on a grid pattern, with streets intersecting at right angles.
Division into Citadel and Lower Town:
Citadel: Housed important structures like granaries and the Great Bath.
Lower Town: Residential and commercial areas.
2. Drainage System:
Underground drainage system with soak pits and manholes.
Every house had a bathroom and a covered drain connected to a central drainage system.
3. Buildings and Structures:
The Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): Possibly used for ritualistic purposes.
Granaries (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal): Indicating a surplus storage system.
Dockyard (Lothal): Suggests knowledge of maritime engineering.
Economic Life
The Indus Valley Civilisation had a flourishing economy based on agriculture, trade and craftsmanship.
1. Agriculture:
Wheat, barley, and rice were the staple crops.
Evidence of irrigation and ploughed fields (Kalibangan).
Domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats and buffaloes.
2. Trade and Commerce:
Maritime trade with Mesopotamia, as indicated by seals found in Mesopotamian sites.
Standardized weights and measures.
Barter system was prevalent.
Bead-making and pottery were key industries.
3. Craft and Technology:
Skilled artisans produced seals, terracotta figurines and metal objects. (Example, the sculpture of Bearded Priest found at Harappa)
Use of copper, bronze and stone tools. (Example, the sculpture of Dancing Girl discovered at Mohenjo Daro)
The famous Harappan seals with pictographic script remain undeciphered.
Social Structure
The social structure of the Indus Valley Civilisation was likely egalitarian, with no clear evidence of kings or ruling elites.
1. Class Structure:
Urban society with merchants, artisans, farmers and laborers.
Division of labor evident in specialized crafts.
No evidence of large palaces or temples, indicating decentralized governance.
2. Status of Women:
Women participated in domestic and economic activities.
Female figurines suggest the worship of a mother goddess.
Presence of jewelry and cosmetics indicates a sense of aesthetics and social status.
Religion and Beliefs
The religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people are reconstructed from seals, figurines and structures.
1. Deities and Worship:
Proto-Shiva (Pashupati Seal): Depiction of a seated deity with animal motifs, possibly an early form of Shiva.
Mother Goddess: Suggesting fertility worship.
Fire Altars (Kalibangan, Lothal): Indicating fire worship.
Sacred Trees and Animals: The peepal tree was venerated and animals like bulls were considered sacred.
2. Burials and Afterlife Beliefs:
Extended burials with grave goods indicate belief in an afterlife.
No large-scale tombs like those in Mesopotamia or Egypt.
Language and Script
The Indus script is pictographic and has over 400 symbols, but it remains undeciphered. It was used on seals, pottery and copper tablets, suggesting administrative and trade documentation.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1900 BCE remains a subject of debate.
Possible Reasons for Decline
Climate Change: Shifts in monsoon patterns and drying of rivers (like Saraswati).
Earthquakes and Floods: Geological changes leading to disruption.
Aryan Invasion Theory: Now largely discredited, as no evidence of large-scale warfare has been found.
Decline of Trade: Reduction in trade with Mesopotamia weakened the economy.
The late Harappan phase saw deurbanization, with people migrating to rural areas.
Legacy of the Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation left a lasting impact on Indian culture.
Influence on Later Cultures:
Town planning principles seen in later Indian cities.
Elements of Harappan religion, like Shiva worship and sacred animals, integrated into Hinduism.
Advanced drainage systems inspired future urban planning in India.
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a remarkable early civilisation with advanced urban planning, a thriving economy and a well-structured society. Despite its decline, its influence on Indian culture remains profound. For UPSC aspirants, studying the Indus Valley Civilisation provides crucial insights into India's ancient past, helping them understand the continuity and evolution of Indian civilisation.